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Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-008
Scott King served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Chad from 1970 to 1971 in an education project. He discusses participating in a multi-country Francophone Africa 2-month training program in Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatiere, Quebec, that included language, culture, and teacher training. His subsequent practice teaching was at the Lycee National in Niamey, the capitol of Niger, along with other volunteers going to West Africa countries. He also talks about the experience of traveling from southern West Virginia to Philadelphia, Canada, New York City, and Paris via Brussels even before he got to West Africa. In Chad, King taught English in a coed middle school in the southern town of Doba. He talks about the expat post-colonial French teachers, the poverty of students, and the nudity of women. He questions the value of teaching English to students who have little chance of making it to high school and says that the Chad government wanted English teachers as a symbol of modernization. King returned to the U.S. before finishing his tour of duty because of stomach problems, which caused him to lose 60 to 70 pounds. Nevertheless, he valued his experience in Chad and has stayed engaged in RPCV activities in West Virginia. He concludes by saying "once a volunteer, always a volunteer." Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 24, 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-007
Robert Mowbray served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Ecuador from 1963 to 1996 in an agriculture and forestry program. He also served as Associate Peace Corps Director for Agriculture and the Environment in Paraguay from 1973 to 1978. Prior to the Peace Corps, Mowbray had been stationed in Okinawa, Japan, in the U.S. Marine Corps and then completed a master's degree in forestry at Yale University. His group was the first to train in Mexico at the UNESCO Patzcuaro facility, but did not receive much technical training. He discusses the "de-selection" of volunteers in his group. In Ecuador, he was located in Ibarra and Otavalo and first worked as part of the Heifer program in conjunction with the Forestry Service, assisting with reforestation, the development of farmer forestry cooperatives, and research. During his second year, Mowbray and other volunteer foresters assisted the Forestry Service in developing a request for more volunteers for the program. In his third year, he moved to Quito and served as liaison between the Peace Corps and the Forestry Service. Following his service term, Mowbray trained new forestry volunteers going to Ecuador at Montana State College. Later, in Paraguay, he worked with the Basico training company to develop more specifically defined jobs and more technical training for volunteers. He also worked on a Peace Corps project with the Smithsonian Institution and expanded the program from 30 to 100 volunteers. He discusses whether volunteers who are expected to "find their own way" or those with clearly defined jobs are more useful to the host country. He concludes the interview by recalling the reactions of volunteers and Ecuadorians to President Kennedy's assassination. After the Peace Corps, Mowbray spent his career in USAID agriculture and forestry projects in South and Central America. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 28, 2018. 3 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-006
Judith Madden-Sturges served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Urcos and Cusco, Peru, from 1963 to 1965 in a community development program. As a student at the University of Michigan, she attended the presidential campaign speech in which John F. Kennedy announced his plans to create what would later become the Peace Corps program. She discusses the research she did for working papers that were used at the Shriver Summit, which she attended, where many aspects of the Peace Corps program were debated. She mentions Sargent Shriver's interest in involving women in the Peace Corps. She also discusses her connection with the Kennedy family through her disabled sister, who attended the Lt. Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Memorial School, and how experience with her sister's nonverbal communication helped to prepare her for communication with Peruvians when she lacked adequate language capacity. Madden-Sturges also served as an interpreter for Robert Kennedy when he visited Peru in 1965. Finally, she talks about the problem of imposing an American view of development on other peoples and the negative impact of the Peace Corps' de-selection process. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 25, 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-005
Rebecca Madden-Sturges served as a second-generation Peace Corps Volunteer in the country of Georgia from 2005 to 2007 in non-profit development projects. Stationed in Sagarejo, she discusses her early struggle to find meaningful work with the non-profit Spectry organization and Youth House, a cultural center for school-age children to which she was assigned. She discusses her successful fundraising work, which resulted in a Peace Corps Partnership grant and the donation of books to the Youth House, and her more significant impact in obtaining funds from the U.S. State Department and Counterpoint International to renovate the gynecological department in the local hospital. Madden-Sturges also discusses her English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) teaching activities with children and adults; the friends she made while in Peace Corps with whom she is still in touch; her travels in the Georgia region; and her recent activities serving as Secretary of the Boston RPCV group and attending National Peace Corps Association conferences. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 25, 2018. 1 digital audio file.
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-004
Charlaine V. Loriston served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Guinea from November 2016 to November 2017 in a health education program. She discusses her life and work in the village of Lyasando, especially her interactions with women speaking the local language. As a first generation American of Haitian heritage, she talks about the similarities she found between Haitian and Guinean language and culture, and how her experience in Guinea helped her better understand Haitian language and customs. She also talks about watching the show "Roots" with the villagers and talking to them about African American history and racial diversity in the U.S. A year into her service, Loriston was severely injured in an accident while riding in a van taxi. She discusses her treatment in Guinea, her evacuation first to Conakry and then to the U.S., as well as problems with her recovery in Florida and Washington, D.C. She is very critical of the Peace Corps' initial response to her urgent medical needs. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 15, 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-003
Karen Keefer served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Nigeria from 1966 to 1968. She was part of an in-service teacher education program in Offa, in Kwara state. She also taught English and helped build a library that included a local Hall of Fame. Following her two years of service, Keefer worked as a Peace Corps trainer in Liberia in 1968 and then joined the staff of the Overseas Recruitment Task Force at Peace Corps headquarters (1977-1979). She started the "African Agenda" group for returned volunteers who had served in Africa, and the ACTION Alumni Association of Greater Washington. These were pre-cursers to the National Peace Corps Association on which she later served as a board member. Keefer also discusses being a founding member of the NPCA Shriver Circle of major NPCA donors, and her work on national Peace Corps reunions. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 14, 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-002
Alan Dockterman served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in northeast Brazil from 1968 to 1970. He discusses his opposition to the Vietnam War as a primary motivation for joining the Peace Corps. He also talks about attrition during his group training in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Brazil. As a lawyer and an accountant, Dockterman was first placed with Fecompipe, a federation of mixed cooperatives in Vicencia in the state of Pernambuco. (The U.S. invested heavily in co-ops as a counter-communist measure during this time.) He discusses his frustration with feeling isolated in this small city and the lack of impact he had during this assignment. He talks about his much more positive social and professional experience working with a legal aid program in the city of Fortaleza in Seara state during the second year. Dockterman also reflects on the positive impact Peace Corps service had on his personal and professional life and the many returned volunteers who have gone on to work in USAID, the State Department, and other international organizations. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 13, 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2019-001
Randolph (Randy) Adams served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Dominican Republic from 1966 to 1969. He worked on community development projects in El Guanal and other towns, then continued for a third year in the education unit of a newly created agricultural reform agency in addition to training new volunteers. Beginning in the 1980s, Adams resumed his affiliation with the Peace Corps and worked in a contract position as a trainer in Venezuela and Peru, then moved to agency headquarters where he filled various positions, including Director of Evaluation (2006-2011). In total, he held 12 different positions. During his interview, Adams talks about changes in volunteer training practices over the decades, from the university-based training in the U.S. and his "outward bound" training in Puerto Rico, to in-country training and home stays for cultural immersion. He discusses how the Peace Corps was generally trusted by various factions during the post-dictator period, but also mentions the bombing of the agency's offices after an American columnist (Drew Pearson) accused the Peace Corps of being affiliated with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Adams talks about the impact of the Peace Corps, both in terms of "capacity-building" in foreign countries by helping people learn how to solve their own problems, and within the U.S. as returned volunteers share their deeper understanding of the world. He also discusses the important role of host country Peace Corps staff and his belief that the "5-year rule" that limits their terms leads to administrative inefficiencies and a lack of continuity. Adams is on the board of the National Peace Corps Association (NPCA) and concludes the interview with comments about the organization's evolving role and activities. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 15, 2018. 2 digital files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-036
Anne Linn served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in southeastern Senegal from 2012 to 2014 in a health program. Her husband was also a volunteer. She discusses her work in Sraya, in Kedougou province, addressing the many health challenges in the region due to a gold rush that brought thousands of people from Senegal and other countries into the area. Linn mentions particular issues related to mercury poisoning associated with the leaching of gold from ore. She discusses her work with a Senegalese doctor and local health workers in malaria prevention and treatment, including her post-Peace Corps work with the Peace Corps West African Malarial Project. This project ran a 2-week malaria boot camp for health care workers that has now ended because of lack of funding. Linn also talks about her participation in the now-defunct Masters International program, which included Peace Corps service as the practicum. Some 40 universities used to participate in this program. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, July 15, 2018. 1 digital audio file.
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-035
Sara Thompson served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Burkina Faso from 2010 to 2012 in a program to educate and empower girls. She was stationed in Matiakoali, in the eastern part of the country. She discusses her medical issues while in-country and problems with getting treatment after her return to the U.S. In particular, she talks about suffering from side effects of mefloquine (an anti-malarial medication also called Larium) and her on-going battle with boils. She criticizes the continued use of mefloquine under Peace Corps policy, and describes problems with the U.S. Department of Labor FECA disability programs and her on-going advocacy activities to address these issues. Thompson also talks about her group's evacuation from Ouahigogou, Burkina Faso, at the beginning of their in-country training because of safety concerns, and the limitations on travel from her town near the Mali border because of violence in neighboring countries. In addition, she discusses a library, farming, and other projects she worked on with the local woman and girls. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, July 12, 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-034
Jennifer Mamola was a Peace Corps Volunteer in an education program in Gulu, Uganda, from November 2012 until April 2013 when she was hit by a car and seriously injured. She discusses the circumstances of her accident, the role that Peace Corps played in her evacuation first to Kampala, the capital of Uganda, and then to Pretoria, South Africa, where she spent about a month in the hospital before returning home. Although Mamola praises the Peace Corps for her rapid evacuation and treatment while overseas and the help she received from the Peace Corps Advocate, she faults the agency and the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) for insensitivity to her needs and the poor medical coverage she has had since her return. (DOL is the agency that administers the Federal Employees Contribution Act (FECA) disability program, which covers Peace Corps volunteers.) Mamola discusses legislation pending in 2018 to address some of the medical issues faced by Peace Corps volunteers. In addition, she talks about Peace Corps training as well as her brief work in rebuilding a library in Uganda, which had been used as a safe space for children during the guerrilla attacks associated with Joseph Kony. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, 6 July 2018. 3 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-033
John Klima served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Somalia from 1962 to 1964, and in Brazil from 1971 to 1973. He met his wife, Emily, a fellow volunteer, during Peace Corps training and they got married secretly during their service in Somalia. Later as a married couple with three young children, they reenlisted and the family was sent to Brazil. While Somalia was a positive experience, Brazil was not. Klima served as an intermediary school math and science teacher in Amoud, Somalia, near the Ethiopian border. He describes how his Somalia I group was terminated a month early because of security concerns during the 1964 border conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia, and says he was accused by his students of being a CIA spy because of what Egyptian teachers had told them. He also discusses problems with the Peace Corps staff in Somalia that resulted in staff being fired and 4 volunteers being reassigned. Regarding his service as a lab technician in Recife, Brazil, Klima says that even though the Peace Corps allowed volunteers with families to join, the agency did not provide adequate support for his young family, which by then included 3 young boys; therefore his wife, who was supposed to be a volunteer, couldn't work and had to stay home with the children. Klima also questions whether the Peace Corps should have been propping up sugar cane growers that exploited their workers. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, 2 July 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming fiels combined into 1 file). [Correction: In the interview, Klima states that Herman Smith replaced Marshall Tyree, but after the interview he remembered that Herman Smith was Tyree's deputy. Sal Tedesco was the new director stationed in Mogadiscio, the capital of Somalia.]
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-023
Abby Thomas served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Somalia from 1966 to 1969. Thomas served as an English language instructor in a primary level boarding school in Bulhar on the Gulf of Aden in northern Somalia from 1966 to 1968, and then as an English as a Second Language (ESL) trainer for Somali Peace Corps volunteers in 1969. During the summer, she and three other volunteers visited towns in the South of Somalia as a traveling theater group. In the 1980s, Thomas served as a development consultant in Somalia and in 2018, she was an election observer in Somaliland. Prior to joining the Peace Corps, she had read that where you grow up determines your worldview and she sought an assignment in an isolated location to explore this idea in real life. Although her assignment was difficult, Thomas says that she accomplished what she set out to do. Much of the interview covers Somali language and cultural issues, including how she was treated as a woman, and her continuing connection with personal Somali friends she made. She also discusses the Peace Corps language and teaching training she received at Columbia Teacher's College. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, 4 and 6 June 2018. The final interview segment is an addendum that was completed two days later. 3 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-017
Jaclyn ("Jackie") Tayabji was served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Malawi from June 2016 to January 2017 as a secondary education English teacher. She discusses her motivation to join the Peace Corps, her training in Malawi, and her work as a teacher while stationed in Mphomwa. Tayabji also talks candidly about her loneliness in her post, which ended with a medical evacuation due to her self-reported alcohol abuse problems. However, she reflects positively on her experience overseas and on how the Peace Corps handled her medical situation. [Archivist's note: Tayabji states in the interview that she completed treatment and has been sober since her return to the U.S.] Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, May 26, 2018. 1 digital audio file.
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-012
Jed Meline was a Peace Corps Volunteer on the island of Chuuk, Micronesia, from 1990 to 1992. He discusses his work as an elementary school English teacher preparing students to take the high school admittance exam, and his work as a public health worker. He tells stories about helping save a baby’s life by providing rehydration medicine and helping families get funding for water catchment tanks during a particularly severe drought. He discusses violence on the island and being protected from this violence by the clan-based support system on the island. Meline also discusses the impact of the Peace Corps on his life, the view of Americans in other countries, and the role of the Peace Corps as the training ground for foreign aid workers in USAID and more broadly. Interviewed by Evelyn Ganzglass, April 9, 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-008
Rhett Power served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Uzbekistan from 2000 to 2001. He taught business courses in a college in Bukhara and served as a small business consultant at a time when Uzbekistan was still emerging from the planned economy of the Soviet era. He recounts Uzbeks' reactions to the 9/11 Twin Tower attacks and the subsequent evacuation of Peace Corps Volunteers. He talks about his continuing close ties with the Uzbek family with whom he and his wife, a fellow volunteer, lived while in the country. Power also discusses their motivation to join the Peace Corps at 30 and the profound impact Peace Corps has had on their subsequent lives working in the international arena. Interviewed by Evelyn Ganzglass, March 28, 2018. 3 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2018-005
Malcolm Odell, Jr., served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Nepal from 1962 to 1967. Odell was in the first group of volunteers to serve in that country (Nepal I). In the interview, he discusses his various posts teaching in remote villages and his close friendships with Sherpas and other Nepalese. He tells many stories of his adventures in Nepal, India, and other countries. These include traveling around the world between Peace Corps tours with another volunteer to learn about successful educational approaches, meeting the Dalai Lama, and hitchhiking from Nepal to Turkey with a friend at the end of his service. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, 10 January 2018. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2017-017
Anne Baker served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Fiji from 1984 to 1986. She then worked as a Peace Corps trainer from 1986 to 1987, and later joined the staff of the National Peace Corps Association. In Fiji, she was a math and science teacher at a secondary school in Lomaivuna. The main lesson Baker learned from this experience is that instruction needs to be made relevant to the students' lives. This insight inspired her lifelong career in global education. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, December 20, 2016. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2017-015
Richard Elwell served as a Peace Corps evaluator in Washington, D.C., from 1962 to 1964, and then as country director in Niger from 1964 to 1966. He recounts that in the early days of the agency, it operated more on enthusiasm than expertise. Elwell reflects on the three goals of the Peace Corps, and states that he believes the United States and the volunteers ultimately got more out of the experience than the countries in which they served. He discusses the impact of Peace Corps teachers on the politics of their host countries. Finally, Elwell talks about how fortunate it was to have doctors and nurses serve as volunteers in Niger. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, 2 January 2017. 1 digital audio file.
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2017-012
Glenn Blumhorst served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Guatemala from 1988 to 1991 on a crop diversification project. He and his wife (a nurse) were first stationed in Morales Izabal on the coast. Later they transferred to San Miguel Chicaj in the central highlands region, where a guerilla war had been going on for 30 years. There were many indigenous widows and orphans in the town, and the women were more willing to work with outsiders than the men. There were several attempted coups while they were in country. Blumhorst extended his service for a third year and worked to bring electricity to the town of Salama. He stayed in Guatemala for several more years, developing a model farm and piloting a medical shuttle plane for a hospital complex. Blumhorst was elected President of the National Peace Corps Association in 2013. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, November 30, 2016. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2017-003
John Fanselow served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Nigeria from 1961 to 1963, and in Somalia from 1966 to 1968. He describes his work as a teacher trainer in Enugu, Nigeria, and how that informed his later career as a teacher trainer for Peace Corps headquarters, Columbia Teachers College, and worldwide. He says his use of teacher observation as an instructional technique in the Peace Corps later became a core method that he wrote several professional books about. Fanselow also tells a story of a fellow volunteer who was sent home due to the unflattering things she wrote about Nigeria on a postcard. He states that the Peace Corps transformed his life and he continues to be a mentor for many former volunteers and others he has met during his teaching career. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, 23 September 2016. 4 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2016-058
Gale Gibson served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Colombia from 1962 to 1964. He and a Colombian colleague organized community track and field teams and high school basketball teams. Gibson was stationed in Manizales, a city of 150,000 people that had a university and many cultural events. He reflects on how the Peace Corps experience positively influenced his life. It is how he met his wife, Elonia, to whom he has been married for 52 years; it also opened him up to working on low-income economic and social issues. Gibson talks about his life-long connection to Colombia through his wife, the people he has met there over the years, and finally the Friends of Colombia group of PCVs of which he is a member. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 31, 2016. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2016-057
Jeremiah (Jerry) Norris served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Colombia from 1963 to 1965 on a cooperatives project (Colombia VI). He was stationed in La Plata. Through his initial work with the community, he ended up visiting El Congresso, a very remote village in the rain forest. He gained the confidence of the villagers by using his Peace Corps medical kit to treat simple maladies. Norris helped them develop a timber-marketing cooperative which is still functioning 50 years later. The initial success of the El Congresso cooperative led to the development of five more cooperatives in La Plata, where Norris and other volunteers contracted with the poorest family in town to do cooking for them. He is still in touch with children from that family. After his official tour of duty, Norris served as director of co-op volunteers in Colombia, and then worked at Peace Corps headquarters in the International Organizations division. To conclude the interview, Norris reflects on the high energy and somewhat chaotic environment in PC Washington at the time, and shares his belief that much of Peace Corps' success is individual rather than organizational and happenstance than design. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, August 24, 2016. 1 digital file.
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2016-035
Evangeline H. Tierney served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Honduras from 1962 to 1964 as a social worker. Training occurred at Saint Louis University and in Puerto Rico, where the physical activities pushed her to her breaking point. As part of Honduras I, she attended social functions hosted by the First Lady of Honduras, who had sponsored the program. Tierney was assigned to Tela and worked as a social worker and community organizer with the Carib people on the north coast of Honduras. She notes that the Carib people, who speak the Garifuna language, are descendants of Africans who escaped from slave ships. She discusses how the villagers did not know what to make of her because they had never met an African American person before. Tierney also talks about the violence that followed a military coup that ousted the Honduran government, and the outpouring of grief among her Honduran friends when President Kennedy was assassinated. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, May 13, 2016. 1 digital audio file.
Oral history
Returned Peace Corps Volunteer Collection
RPCV-ACC-2016-023
John Pielemeier served as Peace Corps volunteer in the Ivory Coast from 1966 to 1968 as an English teacher in a TEFL program (Teaching English as a Foreign Language). He describes his experiences prior to Peace Corps that inspired him to apply, his Peace Corps training at Oberlin College, his training in Quebec, and his in-country training in Bouake, Ivory Coast. Pielemeier taught at a newly formed boarding school in Katiola, interacting with colonial French faculty at that school, and setting up a program in which his students did literacy training and some public health work during their summer vacation in their villages. In addition, he talks about contracting Guillain-Barre syndrome while in the Ivory Coast and his evacuation, treatment, and subsequent rehabilitation. Interviewed and recorded by Evelyn Ganzglass, March 21, 2016. 2 digital audio files (web streaming files combined into 1 file).